Sônia Regina da Cal Seixas Barbosa [2] & Alpina Begossi [3]
NEPAM - Unicamp - C. P. 6166 - CEP: 13081-970, Campinas, SP

Introduction

Coastal Brazilian marine areas, including the small-scale fishing villages located close to or inside Atlantic Forest remnants, have been influenced by economic changes, such as those caused by tourism and associated activities.

Several studies have dealt with the economic changes along the Brazilian coast, focusing especially on the changes that led the small-scale villages to change their economic activity from agriculture (slash and burn, manioc cultivation) to artisanal commercial fishing, and more recently, to tourism [4,5]. Tourism might bring local economic alternatives but it is also responsible for changes that can affect the individuals and the community. Such changes include individual and communal re-arrangements and might bring associated changes in diet [6], among others observed in small-scale fishing communities around the world [7].

In this study, we are interested in how individuals react to the changes and influences drawn from a huge city, as is the 'Niterói-Rio de Janeiro complex'. We understand 'quality of life' [8, 9,10] through three major parameters: a) the first, related to the possibility of having accessible education, transport, jobs, food, good sanitary conditions, and health services; b) the second represents the possibility of having or developing culture, leisure, and affective relationships; c) finally, the third parameter refers to ethical-political aspects of life, such as access to information, to politic participation, to produce change and to participation in the management and in local decisions [8, 9, 10]. In this regard, we will describe the fishermen's activities and the fishermen's families though data on socio-economy, houses and infra-structure, health, and 'quality of life' in the perception of the residents.

Methods

We used questionnaires that served as the basis for interviewing the fishermen commonly found at landing points on the beach (residents and non-residents). We interviewed fishermen that were returning from a fishing trip during the days of our fieldwork. Such interviews dealt with aspects related to fishing, such as instruction level, income, technology, use of the aquatic space, among others. Other interviews were carried out with fishermen's spouses at their residences (all residences were visited) and also included the fishermen themselves. These interviews comprehended aspects of the local life and local community, such as socio-environmental problems, conflicts with the local organization ( Colônia de Pescadores Z-7 ), the increase of tourism, pollution, and related effects. The interviews were performed from November 2001 to October 2003.

Results

We interviewed 48 fishermen and 20 fishermen's families during the fieldwork. We also obtained information from local newspapers, literature and meetings with the Colônia President, Mr. Aurivaldo Jose Almeida (Barbudo).


Figure 1. Map of the area studied. Source: Prefeitura Municipal de Niterói, 2003.

The Fishermen's Colony Z-7 (Itaipu Colony ) (Figure 1) was formed in 1921 and, like the other Fishermen's Colonies in Brazil, it was under the intervention of governmental and marine institutions ( Capitania dos Portos ) (Port Authority), thus having presidents that were, for the most part, from the army [11, 12]. The first president directly elected by the participants (that include artisanal, commercial and recreational fishermen) was Mr. Barbudo, elected in 2002. This particular association includes about 450 fishermen from Itaipu and from other adjacent beaches and even the near-by cities of Piratininga, Camboinhas, Itacoatiara, Itaipuacu, Marica and Ponta Negra. The main problems of the Colônia are related to the ownership of the land by fishermen and associated problems regarding outsiders and the property they have acquired for building houses; pollution in the sea, associated with the pollution of the bay of Guanabara, and pollution on the beach [13].



Figure 2. Landscape and restaurants on Itaipu Beach.

Itaipu beach is well known due to its beautiful landscape and artisanal fishing (Figure 2). However, changes occurred, especially in the last 20 years, due to the growing number of residents that came from the city of Rio de Janeiro (and also from other places in Niterói), running away from the crowds and violence that had become so common in both cities. Itaipu is part of the so-called Praias Oceânicas de Niterói (Oceanic Beaches of Niteroí) , composed of beaches and lagoons (Camboinhas, Piratininga and Itacoatiara). Itaipu's population was 58 thousand inhabitants in 2000, out of the 460 thousand that lived in the Niterói municipality [14]. Such changes brought sophisticated buildings and houses built for the upper middle class (such as the Vale de Itaipu Condominium ) and also the growth of slums, such as the Favela do Rato Molhado ). Therefore, considered as a region of wild beaches in the 1980s, this region received many residents and tourists, affecting the life style of the local Itaipu-beach fishermen and their families.

Earlier studies [15, 16, 17] on fishermen from Niterói, such as from Itaipu and Jurujuba, show still different relations between fishermen and fishing, and between them and the community (and outsiders). For Jurujuba, there are references on the psychological suffering of the fishermen, in which the changes affected not only their place of fishing but also their 'place in life' [18,19].

Not all fishermen that fish or live on Itaipu Beach are linked or associated to the Colônia . Actually, the general impression is that the association is more notable due to the activities among women rather that among men. A local fishermen's movement against a top-down governmental initiative to transform Itaipu Beach into an extractive reserve [20] was even in local newspapers (such as Jornal da Região , April 25 to May 2, 1999), showing the fishermen's unexpectedly organized form of dealing with their rights to the local fishing areas. A change to an extractive reserve would mean to move from local legislation to federal legislation of environmental protection. We do not have much data on the fishermen's meetings, because the research in the residences focused especially on women's perceptions of quality of life.

Socio-demographic conditions and fishing

The 20 families studied included 91 individuals (49 men and 42 women), from 20 to 49 years old (Tables 1 and 2). Most residents were born in Niterói, the municipality in which Itaipu is located. There are no illiterates and most residents have more than 8 years of study (Tables 4 and 5).

Table 1. The sample taken of residents of Itaipu beach (n=91).

Table 2. Residents of Itaipu Beach, by age.

Table 3. Place of birth of the residents (n= 91).

Table 4. Level of instruction of residents

The sample of the 48 fishermen includes residents and non-residents of Itaipu (22 residents). We show some results related to the sample taken on the fishermen that depend on artisanal fishing as an economic activity, sometimes only complementary. The level of instruction and place of birth of the fishermen are similar to that of the residents (Tables 5 and 6).

Table 5. Level of instruction of fishermen of Itaipu beach .

Table 6. Place of birth of fishermen sampled at Itaipu beach.

Residences and infrastructure

The property (land ownership) of the buildings in the coastal area of Itaipu beach belongs to the Brazilian Navy. Since 1998 they have channeled water but electricity has been available for a long time (no data on its beginning). They also have telephones but sewage services are non-existent [21], which is a reason for complaints from the residents. The problem is worsened when the garbage from the restaurants along the beach (Figure 2) is left from the weekends of high tourist intensity .

Fishing and Health

Fishermen go out to the sea very early in the morning and return around 10 a.m. but sometimes after 2 p.m. In Itaipu, beach fishing is performed in small boats or canoes, usually with hook and line, for cutlass fish ( Trichiurus lepturus ) or squid ( Loligo sp.). Nets are also used for sand drum ( Micropogonias furnieri ), among others. Most fish are sold to local buyers at landing points. Some buyers are women that have managed this work for many years (Figure 3).

The women interviewed usually stressed initially that no health problems were observed within their families. However, citations in interviews are described in Table 7.

Table 7: Morbidities mentioned in interviews
(N=30 out of 86 interviews).

In other coastal communities of Brazil, it was observed that many medicinal plants were used in the treatment of cardiac and hypertension problems [23]. Perhaps the high quantity of salt ingested in some fishing communities, especially considering that some fish are salted and dried for conservation, might contribute to these symptoms. On the other hand, no fish are salted at Itaipu beach; therefore, other factors might contribute to hypertension and related problems. Fishing communities usually have a diet based on fish, a diet observed in many coastal communities on the Atlantic Forest coast, such as Puruba Beach, Buzios Island, Jaguanum Island, where fish account for 52-68% of the animal protein consumed [24,25]. A diet based on fish also has positive aspects concerning cardiovascular diseases, as shown in studies among Eskimos and other communities [26].

Women's perceptions of quality of life

The results of the interviews permit the association of the main socio-environmental problems with the local perception of the community on 'quality of life'. Some examples are given below, illustrated by comments/sentences during the interviews:

•  With the exception of the non-treated sewage, Itaipu is a good place to live (Mrs. J ).

•  In spite of the waste and sewage, I would not live in Rio again (the city of Rio de Janeiro). Here there is tranquility (Mrs. E ).

•  It is great here; there is the sea and the landscape (Mrs. T ).

•  Quality of life is having education, health, controlled pollution , and living with solidarity (Mrs. M ).

•  This is my life, with no danger (Mrs. Ma ).

Two aspects must be stressed here:

•  the extent to which local perceptions on 'quality of life' give information on real environmental problems (acting as indicators);

•  the different approaches of tourists and residents, leading to different behaviors concerning the waste on the beach. The tourists return home, but for the residents and fishermen, Itaipu beach is their home [27]. A solution mentioned by some would be a communal project ( Praia Limpa - Clean Beach) [28] , based on experiences from other states, such as São Paulo.

Individual approach for the improvement of quality of life: toward collective action

During interviews, there was often an attempt to use the claims on the problems observed to create a collective action to solve the problems (such as in the Clean Beach Project, already mentioned). In this regard, women seemed more prompt to create collective activities instead of solving the problems individually. We illustrate this fact with some of the answers given, as follows:

•  We believe education and better consciousness might improve the situation (Mrs. E ).

•  I would like for people to be more active in helping the association (the Colônia ) (Mrs. D ).

•  If I could, I would change people's attitudes toward collective actions (Mrs. E).

•  We need to change people's consciousness (Mrs. J ).

Concluding remarks: individual approach to collective action among women - preliminary results and future perspectives

One interviewee, Mrs. E , stated: "quality of life is to have the 'basics' (education, health, environmental and sanitary treatments and controlled pollution) and to have healthy attitudes: it is living with solidarity and not being closed up at home".

Women seemed very active in promoting collective activities, beginning especially with courses, such as:

- fish processing: as shown in the examples of fish buyers, some women are active in commercial activities. Successful examples of women that entered fish processing and commerce are available in the literature. For example, there is a classical study on local changes and economic woman-empowerment among the Fanti fishermen from Ghana [29]. In the Mekong region (Cambodia, Lao, Thailand, Vietnam), women play an important role in the manufacture of fishing gear, fish sorting, handling, processing, and marketing; in particular, commercialization of fish is considered a woman's domain [30]. In Itaipu, women also work in the local markets, local restaurants and in net manufacturing. The courses given taught fish processing and aquaculture (mollusks). The improvement in the family income was a benefic result, because products were sold to local restaurants.

•  other courses : other courses were also organized by women, such as patchwork and other related activities. These courses were the basis for a handicraft association (GARO - Grupo de artesãos da região oceânica - Oceanic-region artisanal group). Physical activities were also a subject of other collective activities ( Comunidade em Exercício - Community in Exercise).

These activities show how women are prompt in organizing themselves to improve local conditions. Some authors [31] showed the importance of women's perception that being 'a group member' can solve individual necessities, such as getting better incomes, hiring children, realizing their capabilities and talents, among others. However, one of the major problems at Itaipu Beach is still the non-existence of waste and sewage treatment, which has still not been transformed into a collective action.

Such information is important and might determine future studies about the threshold from individual to collective actions. In particular it is important to analyze the variables that push toward collective actions that also bring changes related to locally relevant necessities (such as the improvement of sanitary conditions). Classical studies [32] approached the problems that individuals face when attempting to achieve collective benefits, including the free ride on the efforts of others. Such observation is especially important in evaluating the costs and benefits concerning the individual move towards collective actions that may bring reasonable changes. Perhaps the cost of a collective action towards better sanitary conditions represents a major effort that individuals are still not ready to face, such as the conflicts with politicians, extensive meetings with authorities and delusion due to false promises in political campaigns. These are future perspectives for research that could certainly enlighten the current literature on the commons [33] and on cooperation [34].

FIGURES:

Figure 1. Map of the area studied.

Figure 2. Landscape and restaurants on Itaipu Beach.

Figure 3. Women as fish buyers.

References and Notes:

[1] Research supported by FAPESP, S.P., Brazil. Grant no. 01/00718-1. We thank FAPESP and CNPq for traveling support to Cozumel, Mexico , and for a productivity scholarship. AB thanks Eduardo Camargo for helping in the fieldwork at Itaipu Beach, Niterói .

[2] srcal@unicamp.br

[3]alpina@unicamp.br

[4]Diegues, A. C. Pescadores, camponeses e trabalhadores do mar . Ed. Ática, São Paulo, 1983.

[5] Begossi A. The fishers and buyers from Búzios island, Brazil. Ciência e Cultura 48 (3): 142-147, 1996.

[6] Hanazaki, N. and Begossi, A. Does fish still matter ? Changes in the diet of two Brazilian fishing communities. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 42 (4-5): 279-301, 2003.

[7] Ruddle, K. External forces and change in traditional community - based fishery management systems in the Asia-Pacific region. Maritime Anthropological Studies 6: 1-37, 1993.

[8] Barbosa, Sônia Regina da Cal Seixas. Qualidade de vida e suas metáforas. Uma reflexão sócio-ambiental. Tese de doutorado em Ciências Sociais, DCS, IFCH, Unicamp, 1996.

[9] Barbosa, Sônia Regina da Cal Seixas. Qualidade de vida e ambiente: uma temática em construção. In: BARBOSA, Sônia Regina da Cal Seixas (org). A Temática ambiental e a pluralidade do ciclo de Seminários do NEPAM . Campinas. UNICAMP, NEPAM, 1998 .

[10] Barbosa, Sônia Regina da Cal Seixas. Qualidade de vida e subjetividade em sociedades complexas. Revista Brasileira de Sociologia da Emoção ( www.rbse..rg3.net), vol. 02, n. 06, dezembro de 2003

[11] Breton, Y, Benazera, C., Plante, S. and Cavanagh, J. Fisheries management and the colonias in Brazil: a case study of top-down producer ' ´ s organization. Society and Natural Resources 9 (3): 307-315, 1996.

[12] Begossi, A and Brown, D. Fisheries co-management experiences in Latin America and the Caribbean, Pages 135-150 in The fisheries co- management experience: accomplishments, challenges and prospects, D. C. Wilson, J. R. Nielsen e P. Degnbol (eds.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Fish and Fisheries Series 26, Dordrecht , , 2003.

[13] Information from interview with Mr. Barbudo, performed in January 2002.

[14] Data from www.cide.rj.gov.br

[15] Kant de Lima and Pereira, R. Pescadores de Itaipu. Meio ambiente conflito e ritual no litoral do estado do Rio de Janeiro. Niterói: EDUFF, 1997.

[16] Pereira, L. F. Revisitando Itaipu. Um ensaio de antropologia visual. Niterói: EDUFF, pp. 265 - 331 in Kant de Lima and Pereira (1997) Roberto. Pescadores de Itaipu . Meio ambiente conflito e ritual no litoral do estado do Rio de Janeiro. Niterói: EDUFF, 1997.

[17] Pessanha, E. G. da F. Os companheiros. Trabalho e sociabilidade na pesca em Itaipu. Niterói: EDUFF, 2003.

[18] Duarte, L.F. D. As redes do suor . A reprodução social dos trabalhadores da pesca em Jurujuba. Niterói: EDUFF, 1999.

[19] Duarte, Luiz Fernando Dias (1988). Da Vida Nervosa nas Classes Trabalhadoras. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1988.

[20] Areas (usually forested) in which long term usufruct is given to locals. The first reserves in Brazil are located in the Amazon, such as the Upper Juruá Extractive Reserve, created in 1990 (Begossi and Brown, 2003, pages 135-152 in Experiences with fisheries co-management in Latin America and the Caribbean , D. C. Wilson, J. R. Nielsen & P. Degnbol, The Fisheries Management Experience , Kluwer Academic Pub . , Dordrecht ).

[21] The Brazilian Census of 2000 showed that 52% of 5,507 Brazilian municipalities have some kind of sew age er system (Carmo, R.L. 2002) Population and water resources in Brazil, pages 167-182 , , Hogan, D., Berquó, E. and Costa, H. S. M., Population and Environment in Brazil: Rio + 10, CNPD-ABEP-NEPO, Campinas, 2002.

[22] Defined in this research as the cases in which drug therapy is needed after diagnosis by physicians.

[23] Begossi, Hanazaki and Tamashiro. Medicinal plants on in the Atlantic Forest coast. Human Ecology 30 (3): 281-299, 2002.

[24] Begossi. The application of ecological theory to human behavior: niche, diversity and optimal foraging. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Human Ecology, Michigan State University, April 21-24 de abril de , 1994. In: R. Borden, Bubolz, M., L. Hens, J. Taylor, and T. Webler (eds.), The Society for Human Ecology , pp. 153-161. ISBN 0-940051-06-0, 1995.

 [25] Begossi, A , Hanazaki, N. and Peroni, N. , Knowledge and use of biodiversity in Brazilian hot spots. Environment, Development and Sustainability 2 (3-4): 177-193, 2001.

[26] Lands, W. E. (1986). Fish and human health. Academic Press, New York

[27] Comment given by Mr. Barbudo, President of the Colônia Z-7, during interview.

[28] The Praia Limpa Project was an initiative of the municipalities of Santos (São Paulo State) in which garbage bags were given to tourists and users of the beaches, who were asked to put their waste in the trash baskets located in the streets, after leaving the beaches

[29] Women turned to be into ' money lenders' , and to control fishing - equipment controllers , after technological changes. Christensen, J. B. Motor power and woman power womanpower : technological and economic change among the Fanti fishermen of Ghana.Pages 71-95 in Those who live from the sea, M. E. Smith (ed.), West Pub. Co., St Paul, 1977.

[30] Matics, K. I. Gender in Fisheries and Aquaculture: initia tia tives of the Mekong region. Workshop on Gender in Fisheries and Aquaculture, European Commission, Brussels December 9-10, 2002.

[31] Medard, M. and Geheb, K. We do fish as women ' ´ s groups and individuals ´ : perspectives from Lake Victoria. Workshop on Gender in Fisheries and Aquaculture , European Commission, Brussels December 9-10, 2002.

[32] Ostrom, E. Governing the commons (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990).

[33] Ostrom, E., Dietz, T., Dolsak, N., Stern, P. C., Stonich, S., and Weber, E. U. The Drama of the commons (National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 2002).

[34] Axelrod, R. The Complexity of cooperation ( Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1997).

mciencia@unicamp.br